Forest dynamics, growth and yield : from measurement to model

Berlin

2009

XIX, 664 S.

Ill., graph. Darst.

Monographie

978-3-642-14861-3

175312

Forest Dynamics, Growth, and Yield: A Review, Analysis of the Present State, and Perspective ; System Characteristics of Trees and Forest Stands ; Differences in the Temporal and Spatial Scale Between Trees and Humans ; Forest Stands are Open Systems ; Forests are Strongly Structurally Determined Systems ; Trees, Forest Stands, and Forest Ecosystems are Shaped by History ; Forests are Equipped with and Regulated by Closed Feedback Loops ; Forest Ecosystems are Organised Hierarchically ; Forest Stands are Systems with Multiple Output Variables ; From Forest Stand to Gene Level: The Ongoing Spatial and Temporal Refinement in Analysis and Modelling of Tree and Forest Stand Dynamics ; Experiments, Inventories, and Measurement of Structures and Rates ; From Proxy Variables to "Primary" Factors for Explanations and Estimations of Stand and Tree Growth ; From Early Experience Tables to Ecophysiologically Based Computer Models ; Bridging the Widening Gap Between Scientific Evidence and Practical Relevance ; Scale Overlapping Experiments ; Interdisciplinary Links Through Indicator Variables ; Link Between Experiments, Inventories, and Monitoring by Classification Variables ; Continuity in Management of Long-Term Experiment Plots in Bavaria as a Model of Success ; Scientific and Practical Experiments ; Establishment and Survey of Long-Term Experimental Plots ; Establishment of Experimental Plots and Trial Plots ; Measuring Standing and Lying Trees ; Planning Forest Growth and Yield Experiments ; Key Terminology in the Design of Long-Term Experiments ; The Experimental Question and its Four Component Questions ; Which Question Should Be Answered? ; With What Level of Accuracy Should the Question be Answered? ; What Level of Spatial-Temporal Resolution is Wanted in the Explanation? ; Why and for What Purpose Should the Question be Answered? ; Biological Variability and Replicates ; Total Population and Sample ; Size of Experimental Plot and Trial Plot Number ; Block Formation and Randomisation: Elimination of Systematic Error ; Classical Experimental Designs ; One-Factor Designs ; Two-Factor or Multifactor Analysis ; Split-Plot and Split-Block Designs ; Trial Series and Disjunct Experimental Plots ; Special Experimental Designs and Forest Growth Surveys ; From Stand to Individual Tree Experiments ; Experiments and Surveys of Growth Disturbances ; Artificial Time Series or Growth Series ; Description and Quantification of Silvicultural Prescriptions ; Kind of Thinning ; Thinning According to Social Tree Classes by Kraft (1884) ; Thinning According to Combined Tree and Stem Quality Classes from the Association of German Forest Research Stations (1902) ; Thinning After the Selection of Superior or Final Crop Trees ; Thinning Based on Diameter Class or Target Diameter ; Severity of Thinning ; Thinning Based on a Target Stand Density Curve ; Approaches for Regulating Thinning Severity and Stand Density ; Selection of Density Classes ; Management of Stand Density in Fertilisation and Provenance Trials ; Individual Tree Based Thinning Prescriptions ; Intensity of Thinning ; Algorithmic Formulation of Silvicultural Prescriptions for Forest Practice and Growth and Yield Models ; Standard Analysis of Long-Term Experimental Plots ; From Measurement to Response Variables ; Importance of Regression Sampling for Standard Analysis ; Principle of Regression Sampling ; Linear Transformation ; Determination of Stand-Height Curves ; Function Equations for Diameter-Height Relationships ; Selection of the Most Suitable Model Function ; Diameter-Height-Age Relationships ; Method of Smoothing Coefficients ; Growth Function Methods for Strata Mean Trees ; Age-Diameter-Height Regression Methods ; Form Factors and Volume Calculations for Individual Trees ; Form Factors ; Volume Calculations for Individual Trees ; Stand Mean and Cumulative Values at the Time of Inventory and for the Periods Between Inventories ; Reference Area ; Tree Number ; Mean Diameter and Mean Diameter of the Top Height Tree Collective ; Mean and Top Height ; Slenderness hq/dq and hioo/dioo ; Stand Basal Area and Volume ; Growth and Yield Characteristics ; Results of Standard Analysis ; Presentation in Tables ; Stand Development Diagrams ; Description and Analysis of Stand Structures ; Structures and Processes in Forest Stands ; Interaction Between Structures and Processes ; Effect of Initial Structure on Stand Development ; Descriptions of Stand Structure ; Tree Distribution Maps and Crown Maps ; Three-Dimensional Visualisation of Forest Growth ; Spatial Occupancy Patterns ; Horizontal Tree Distribution Patterns ; Poisson Distribution as a Reference for Analysing Stand Structures ; Position-Dependent Distribution Indices ; Distribution Indices Based on Sample Quadrats ; K-Function ; L-Function ; Pair Correlation Functions for Detailed Analysis of Tree Distribution Patterns ; Stand Density ; Stocking Density ; Percentage Canopy Cover (PCC) ; Mean Basal Area, mBA, by Assmann (1970) ; Quantifying Stand Density from the Allometry Between Mean Size and Plants per Unit Area ; Crown Competition Factor CCF ; Density of Spatial Occupancy and Vertical Profiles ; Differentiation ; Coefficient of Variation of Tree Diameters and Heights ; Diameter Differentiation by Fiildner ( 1995) ; Species Richness, Species Diversity, and Structural Diversity ; Species Intermingling ; Species Intermingling Index by Fiildner (1996) ; Index of Segregation from Pielou (1977) ; Growing Space and Competitive Situation of Individual Trees ; The Stand as a Mosaic of Individual Trees ; Position-Dependent Competition Indices ; Example of Competitor Identification and Competition Calculation ; Methods of Competitor Identification ; Quantifying the Level of Competition ; Evaluation of Methods ; Position-Independent Competition Measures ; Crown Competition Factor ; Horizontal Cross-Section Methods ; Percentile of the Basal Area Frequency Distribution ; Comparing Position-Independent with Position-Dependent Competition Indices 3088.4 Methods Based on Growing Area ; Circle Segment Method ; Rastering the Stand Area ; Growing Area Polygons ; Detailed Analysis of a Tree's Spatial Growth Constellation ; Spatial Rastering and Dot Counting ; Calculation of Spatial Distances ; Crown Growth Responses to Lateral Restriction ; Hemispherical Images for Quantifying the Competitive Situation of Individual Trees ; Fish-Eye Images as a Basis for Spatial Analyses ; Methodological Principles of Fish-Eye Projection in Forest Stands ; Quantifying the Competitive Situation of Individual Trees in a Norway Spruce-European Beech Mixed Stand.. ; Edge Correction Methods ; Edge Effects and Edge Correction Methods ; Reflection and Shift ; Linear Expansion ; Structure Generation ; Evaluation of Edge Correction Methods ; Effects of Species Mixture on Tree and Stand Growth ; Introduction: Increasing Productivity with Species Mixtures? ; Fundamental Niche and Niche Differentiation ; Maximizing Fitness isn't Equivalent to Maximizing
Productivity ; The Balance Between Production Promoting and Inhibiting Effects is Important ; Framework for Analysing Mixing Effects ; Ecological Niche ; Site-Growth Relationships ; Risk Distribution ; Comparison of Mixed Stands with Neighbouring Pure Stands: Methodological Considerations ; Quantifying Effects of Species Mixture at Stand Level ; Cross-Species Diagrams for Visualising Mixture Effects ; Nomenclature, Relations and Variables for Analysing Mixture Effects ; Mixture Proportion ; Examining Effects of Species Mixture on Biomass Productivity in Norway Spruce-European Beech Stands: An Example ; Examining Mean Tree Size in Norway Spruce-European Beech Stands: An Example 3609.4 Quantifying Mixture Effects at the Individual Tree Level ; Efficiency Parameters for Individual Tree Growth ; Application of Efficiency Parameters for Detecting Mixture Effects ; Productivity in Mixed Forest Stands ; The Mixed Stands Issue: A Central European Review and Perspective ; Benchmarks for Productivity of Mixed Stands Compared to Pure Stands ; Spatial and Temporal Niche Differentiation as a Recipe for Coexistence and Cause of Surplus Productivity ; Crown Shyness ; Growth Resilience with Structural and Species Diversity ; Growth Relationships and their Biometrie Formulation ; Dependence of Growth on Environmental Conditions and Resource Availability ; Unimodal Dose-Effect-Curve ; Dose-Effect-Rule by Mitscherlich (1948) ; Combining the Effects of Several Growth Factors ; Allometry at the Individual Plant Level ; Allometry and Its Biometrie Formulation ; Examples of Allometry at the Individual Plant Level ; Detection of Periodic Changes in Allometry ; Growth and Yield Functions of Individual Plants ; Physiological Reasoning and Biometrical Formulation of Growth Functions ; Overview Over Approved Growth and Yield Functions ; Relationship Between Growth and Yield ; Allometry at the Stand Level: The Self-Thinning Rules from Reineke (1933) and Yoda et al. (1963) ; Reineke's ( 1933) Self-thinning Line and Stand Density Index ; -3/2-Power Rule by Yoda et al. (1963) ; Link Between Individual Tree and Stand Allometry ; Allometric Scaling as General Rule ; Stand Density and Growth ; Assmann's Concept of Maximum, Optimum and Critical Stand Density ; Biometrie Formulation of the Unimodal Optimum Curve of Volume Growth in Relation to Stand Density and Mean Tree Size ; Dealing with Biological Variability ; Quantifying Variability ; Reproduction of Variability ; Forest Growth Models ; Scales of Observation, Statistical and Mechanistic Approaches to Stand Dynamics ; Scales of Forest Growth and Yield Research and Models ; From the Classical Black-Box to White-Box
Approaches ; Top-Down Approach vs Bottom-Up Approach ; Model Objectives, Degree of System Abstraction, Database ; Growth Models as Nested Hypotheses About Systems Behaviour ; Growth Models as a Decision Tool for Forest Management ; Growth Models Based on Stand Level Mean and Cumulative Values ; Principles of Yield Table Construction ; From Experience Tables to Stand Simulators ; Growth Models Based on Tree Number Frequencies ; Representing Stand Development by Systems of Differential Equations ; Growth Models Based on Progressing Distributions ; Stand Evolution Models - Stand Growth as a Stochastic Process ; Individual Tree Growth and Yield Models ; Overview of the Underlying Principles of Individual-Tree Models ; Growth Functions as the Core Element of Individual-Tree Models ; Overview of Model Types ; Gap and Hybrid Models ; Development Cycle in Gaps ; JABOWA - Prototype Model from Botkin et al. ( 1972) . . . ; Matter Balance Models ; Increasing Structural and Functional Accordance of Models with Reality ; Modelling of the Basic Processes in Matter Balance Models ; Overview of Matter Balance Model Approaches ; Landscape Models ; Application of Landscape Model LandClim ; Visualisation of Forest Stands and Wooded Landscapes ; Visualisation Tools TREEVIEW and L-VIS 484; Perspective ; Evaluation and Standard Description of Growth Models ; Approaches for Evaluation of Growth Models and Simulators ; Suitability for a Given Purpose ; Validation of the Biometrie Model ; Suitability of the Software ; Customising Models and Simulators for End-Users ; Examples of Model Validation ; Validation on the Basis of Long-Term Sample Plots and Inventory Data ; Comparison with Growth Relationships ; Comparison with Knowledge from Experience ; Standards for Describing Models and Simulators ; Application of Forest Simulation Models for Decision Support in Practice ; Model Objective and Prediction Algorithm ; Model Objective ; Prediction Algorithm ; Database ; Site-Growth Model ; The Principles of Controlling Individual Tree Growth by Means of Site Factors ; Modelling the Potential Age-Height Curve in Dependence on Site Conditions ; Generation of Initial Values for Simulation Runs ; Stand Structure Generator STRUGEN ; Spatially Explicit Modelling of the Growth Arrangement of the Individual Trees ; Index KKL as the Indicator of the Crown Competition ; Index NDIST as the Indicator for Competition Asymmetry ; Index KMA for the Species Mixture in the Neighbourhood of Individual Trees ; Application for Scenario Analysis at the Stand Level: A Pure Norway Spruce Stand vs a Norway Spruce – European Beech Mixed Stand ; Growth and Yield at the Stand Level ; Growth and Yield on Tree Level ; Modelling Structural Diversity ; Multi-Criteria Considerations ; Growth Models for Dynamic Enterprise Planning ; Simulation at the Enterprise Level for Long-Term Strategic Planning ; Application of Models for Decision Support ; Application of the Munich Forestry Enterprise Forest Management Plan ; Estimation of Growth and Yield Responses to Climate Change ; Dependence of Response Patterns on Site and Tree Species ; Sensitivity Analysis at the Regional Level ; Development of Silvicultural Measures for Mitigation and Adaptation to Climate Change ; Diagnosis of Growth Disturbances ; Growth Models as Reference ; Comparison with Yield Table ; Dynamic Growth Models as Reference ; Synthetic Reference Curves ; Undisturbed Trees or Stands as a Reference ; Increment Trend Method ; Pair-Wise Comparison ; Reference Plot Comparison ; Reference Plot Comparison by Indexing ; Regression-Analytical Estimation of Increment Decrease ; Growth Behaviour in Other Calendar Periods as Reference ; Individual Growth in Previous Period as Reference ; Long-Term, Age-Specific Tree Growth as Reference (Constant Age Method) ; Growth Comparison of Previous and Subsequent Generation at the Same Site ; Diagnosis of Growth Trends from Succeeding Inventories ; Dendro-Chronological Time Series Analysis ; Elimination of the Smooth Component ; Indexing ; Response Function ; Quantification of Increment Losses ; Pathways to System Understanding and Management ; Overview of Knowledge Pathways in Forest Growth and Yield Research ; Observation, Measurement, and Collection of Data ; Description ; Formulation of Hypotheses for Elements of Individual System Elements ; Test of Hypotheses ; Models as a Chain of Hypotheses ; Test of Model Hypothesis by Simulation ; Application of the Model in Research, Practice, and Education ; Relationships, Rules, Laws, and Theories ; Transfer of Knowledge from Science to Practice ; Concept of Forest Ecosystem Management ; Long-Term Experiments and Models for Decision Support
Forstertrag ; Mitteleuropa ; Waldökosystem ; Nachhaltigkeit
The aim of this book is to improve the understanding of forest dynamics and the sustainable management of forest ecosystems. How do tree crowns, trees or entire forest stands respond to thinning in the long term? What effect do tree species mixtures and multi-layering have on the productivity and stability of trees, stands or forest enterprises? How do tree and stand growth respond to stress factors such as climate change or air pollution? Furthermore, in the event that one has acquired knowledge about the effects of thinning, mixture and stress, how can one make that knowledge applicable to decision-making in forestry practice? The experimental designs, analytical methods, general relationships and models for answering questions of this kind are the focus of this book. Given the structures dealt with, which range from plant organs to the tree, stand and enterprise levels, and the processes analysed in a time frame of days or months to decades or even centuries, this book is directed at all readers interested in trees, forest stands and forest ecosystems. This work has been compiled for students, scientists, lecturers, forest planners, forest managers, and consultants.
How do tree crowns, trees or entire forest stands respond to thinning in the long term?What effect do tree species mixture and multi-layering have on the productivity and stability of trees, stands or forest enterprises? How do tree and stand growth respond to stress due to climate change or air pollution? Furthermore, in the event that one has acquired knowledge about the effects of thinning, mixture and stress, how can one make this knowledge applicable to decision making in forestry practice? The experimental designs, analytical methods, general relationships and models for answering questions of this kind are the focal point of this book. Forest ecosystems can be analysed at very different spatial and temporal levels. This book focuses on a very specific range in scale within which to analyse forest ecosystems, which extends spatially from the plant organ level through to the stand level, and temporally fromdays or months to the life-time of a forest stand, spanning decades or possibly even centuries. It is this range in scale addressed in the book that gives it its special profile. General rules, relationships and models of tree, and stand growth are introduced at these levels.Whereas plant biology and ecophysiology operate at a higher resolution, forest management and landscape ecology operate at a broader spatial-temporal resolution. The approach to forest dynamics, growth and yield adopted in this book lies in between; it integrates knowledge from these disciplines and, therefore, can contribute to a cross-scale, holistic systems understanding. The scales selected have practical relevance, as they are identical to those of biological observation and the environment in which people live. As interesting as fragmented details at small temporal or spatial scales obtained through reductionist approaches might be, system management requires rather an integrated, holistic view of the system in question. In this book I outline some ways to draw information of practical relevance from the scientific knowledge acquired.